1.7 The Scientific Method

Sociologists employ well-established research methods like experiments, surveys, and fieldwork to understand the complexities of human social interactions. These interactions can often seem puzzling due to their diversity. If you’re new to social science, you might associate science with discoveries or chemical reactions, rather than exploring the intricacies of human behavior.

However, this is precisely why scientific models are effective for studying human behavior. The scientific method provides a structured approach to research, ensuring objectivity and accuracy in results. It establishes parameters that guide the study and organize its findings.

The scientific method entails developing and testing theories about the social world based on observable evidence. It emphasizes systematic observation and strives to be objective, critical, skeptical, and logical. This method follows a set of six steps refined over centuries of scientific inquiry.

Sociological research doesn’t simply categorize knowledge as right or wrong. Instead, it offers insights into human behaviors, social practices, and diverse cultures, rituals, beliefs, trends, and attitudes.

Sociologists explore questions regarding how social factors influence outcomes. For instance, they investigate the psychological well-being, community cohesion, job opportunities, wealth distribution, crime rates, and other aspects of different communities. They often delve into underlying issues that hinder meeting basic human needs, studying environmental influences and behavioral patterns leading to various social issues like crime, substance abuse, divorce, poverty, unplanned pregnancies, or illness. Furthermore, sociological studies cover a wide range of topics, including positive aspects such as vacation trends, healthy lifestyles, community organizations, education patterns, recreational activities, parks, and exercise habits.

In conducting research, sociologists not only collect data but also interpret and analyze it using scientific logic and objectivity. They maintain objectivity, focus, and consistency throughout the research process to ensure rigorous analysis (Merton 1968).

Step 1: Posing a Question or Identifying a Research Topic

The initial step in the scientific method involves asking a question or pinpointing a problem within a specific area of interest. It’s crucial to select a topic that’s neither too broad nor too narrow. For instance, asking, “Can couples stay happy?” is too vague, while “What do personal hygiene habits tell us about family values?” is too specific. Sociologists aim to formulate questions that explore clear patterns and relationships.

Step 2: Conducting a Literature Review

The next phase is conducting background research by reviewing existing literature on the topic. This involves exploring resources like books, academic journals, and online sources to understand previous studies and identify gaps in knowledge. Properly citing sources is essential to avoid plagiarism. For instance, if studying family conflict resolution, researchers might look into communication and therapy literature to enhance their study design.

Step 3: Crafting a Hypothesis

A hypothesis is a proposed explanation for a phenomenon based on the relationship between variables. In sociology, hypotheses often predict how one behavior influences another. For instance, a hypothesis could be framed as an “if, then” statement, like “If couples attend church regularly, then they’ll resolve conflicts peacefully.” In scientific research, hypotheses include an independent variable (the cause) and a dependent variable (the effect). For example, “How does gender affect income?” or “How does religion influence family size?” or “How does education level impact social class?”

In another example, let’s say a researcher suggests that teaching kids good hygiene practices (independent variable) could boost their self-esteem (dependent variable). However, it’s worth noting that this hypothesis could also go the other way. A sociologist might propose that enhancing a child’s self-esteem (independent variable) could lead to better hygiene habits (now the dependent variable). It’s crucial to identify the independent and dependent variables accurately. Simply pointing out two related topics or variables isn’t enough; their potential relationship needs to be part of the hypothesis.

Step 4: Planning and Executing a Study to Collect Data

Researchers plan studies to ensure reliability, which means how likely it is for research results to be consistent if the study is done again. Think of cooking as a science experiment. When you follow a recipe and measure ingredients precisely, using the same tools, you get the same outcome every time. Accuracy in measurement tools, like using a measuring cup instead of your hand, increases reliability.

Researchers also aim for validity, which is how well the study measures what it’s supposed to measure. To ensure reliable and valid results, sociologists create operational definitions, defining each concept or variable in terms of concrete steps for measurement. This approach helps maintain consistency across researchers and ensures that the experiment accurately represents what it’s meant to study.

For instance, a study on tutoring’s impact on grades might define tutoring as one-on-one help from an expert hired by a school. However, different researchers might have different definitions of what constitutes a “good” grade. To ensure consistency and replicability, researchers need to agree on standard definitions.

Step 5: Drawing Conclusions

Once the research design is set, sociologists gather, organize, and analyze data to draw conclusions. If the analysis supports the hypothesis, researchers discuss the implications for theory or policy. Even if results don’t match predictions, they still contribute to sociological understanding. Sociologists study both general patterns and exceptions to better grasp social phenomena.

Step 6: Reporting Findings

Researchers present their results at conferences and in academic journals. Other sociologists review and often repeat studies to validate findings. This process helps refine sociological theories and deepen our understanding of social dynamics across different contexts.

Interpretive Framework

While many sociologists rely on gathering factual data and following the scientific method in their research, others work from an interpretive standpoint. Unlike the scientific method, which aims to test hypotheses to find broadly applicable results, interpretive research seeks to examine the social worlds from the perspectives of those involved, aiming for deep insights into the human experience.

Interpretive research tends to focus on description and narratives in its findings. Instead of starting with a hypothesis and a method to test it, interpretive researchers devise approaches to explore topics that often involve direct observation or interaction with participants, such as storytelling. These researchers learn as they go and may adjust their methods or processes during the research to enhance their findings as they progress.

Critical Sociology

Critical sociology involves analyzing and questioning existing sociological research and theories. Inspired by the ideas of Karl Marx, scholars associated with the Frankfurt School and Max Horkheimer’s (1937) essay “Traditional and Critical Theory,” argued that social science, like any academic field, is influenced by power dynamics shaped by factors such as class, caste, race, and gender. Therefore, it’s impossible for sociology to be entirely objective. Critical sociologists see theories, methods, and conclusions as serving one of two purposes: either reinforcing systems of social power and oppression or striving to liberate people from inequality and limitations on their freedom. Deconstruction may involve collecting data, but the analysis isn’t based on empirical or positivist methods.

Research Methods

Designing the research plan is a crucial step in any sociological investigation. Sociologists typically gather data through various methods:

1. Primary data collection involves the researcher gathering the data directly. This can include:

• • Surveys
  • Participant observation
  • Ethnography
  • Case studies
  • Experiments

2. Secondary data analysis involves using existing sources of data, such as:

• • Television shows
  • Internet
  • Other sources

Each research method has its strengths and weaknesses, and the choice of method depends heavily on the topic being studied. When conducting research, it’s essential to consider the most effective way to gather information about your topic, much like an architect needs a blueprint to construct a building. In sociology, your blueprint is your research design, including your chosen data collection method.

When entering a social environment for research, a researcher must exercise caution. There are times to maintain anonymity and times to be open about the research. Sometimes, interviews are appropriate, while at other times, observation alone suffices. Different participants may require varying levels of information about the study. For instance, some should be fully informed, while others should not be aware of being observed. It’s akin to a researcher not casually walking into a dangerous neighborhood late at night, loudly asking, “Any gang members here?” 

Surveys

As a research method, surveys gather data from individuals who respond to a series of questions about their behaviors and opinions, often presented in a questionnaire format. Surveys are a common scientific research method in sociology. Nearly everyone in the United States encounters some form of survey at some point. A prime example is the 2020 U.S. Census, a large-scale survey aimed at collecting sociological data. The Census, which has been conducted since 1790, gathers demographic information about U.S. residents. Presently, the Census comprises 12 questions and is distributed to residents in the United States and five territories.

However, not all surveys are considered sociological research. Many surveys people encounter focus on marketing needs and strategies rather than contributing to social science knowledge or testing hypotheses. Questions like “How many hot dogs do you eat in a month?” or “Were the staff helpful?” aren’t typically designed for scientific research. While the Nielsen Ratings use scientific market research to determine television program popularity, polls conducted by specific shows like American Idol or So You Think You Can Dance can’t be generalized because they target specific audiences. Surveys are commonly administered via cell phones, emails, grocery stores, restaurants, and retail stores, often offering incentives for completion.

Sociologists conduct surveys under controlled conditions for specific purposes. Surveys gather various types of information from people, focusing on their feelings, thoughts, and reported behaviors. Although surveys might not capture how people behave in social situations, they excel in revealing people’s feelings, thoughts, and self-reported actions. Surveys can track preferences for presidential candidates, individual behaviors (like sleeping or texting habits), employment status, income, and education levels.

Surveys target specific populations, such as married college students, international students living away from family, or drug-addicted teenagers. Researchers typically survey a sample—a manageable number of subjects representing a larger population. The quality of a study depends on how well the sample represents the population. In a random sample, every person in the population has an equal chance of being selected for the study, ensuring accurate estimates of public opinion. Surveys can be conducted online, over the phone, by mail, or face-to-face.

Subjects often respond to closed-ended questions, such as yes-or-no or multiple-choice questions, providing quantitative data that can be counted and statistically analyzed. More complex surveys may include open-ended questions, prompting participants to provide short essay responses. These qualitative responses offer subjective insights into personal beliefs, views, goals, or morals. While qualitative data is harder to organize and tabulate, it provides in-depth material for analysis. For example, counting the length of time divorced couples have been separated would yield quantitative (numeric) data, while understanding their post-divorce relationships would yield qualitative (narrative) data.

Field research

Sociological research seldom occurs within the confines of a laboratory. Instead, sociologists venture out into the real world. They engage with individuals in their everyday environments—where they reside, work, and socialize. Field research involves gathering firsthand data from natural settings, whether it’s a local coffee shop, someone’s home, a homeless shelter, the Department of Motor Vehicles (DMV), a hospital, an airport, a shopping mall, or a beach resort. To conduct field research effectively, sociologists must be open to immersing themselves in new surroundings, where they observe, participate in, or experience different social worlds. During fieldwork, it’s the sociologists who may feel out of place, rather than the subjects they’re studying.

Participant observations

In 2000, comic writer Rodney Rothman embarked on an unconventional adventure to gain insights into white-collar work dynamics. He infiltrated the corporate offices of a New York “dot com” agency, blending in with the staff for two weeks without anyone questioning his presence. Rothman’s experiment aimed to see if he could go unnoticed within the workplace. To his surprise, he seamlessly integrated into the team, even securing a desk, informing the receptionist of his whereabouts, and attending meetings. His experience was later documented in an article titled “My Fake Job” published in The New Yorker in 2000. Although Rothman faced criticism for allegedly fabricating details of his story, his narrative provided intriguing glimpses into the inner workings of a “dot com” company, illustrating the lengths writers—or sociologists—might go to uncover material.

Rothman’s endeavor exemplifies a research method known as participant observation, wherein researchers immerse themselves in a group’s activities to observe them firsthand. This approach allows researchers to experience specific aspects of social life directly. For instance, journalist Barbara Ehrenreich (2001) conducted a similar study for her book Nickel and Dimed. Inspired by her editor’s challenge, Ehrenreich delved into the lives of low-income workers, taking on various minimum-wage jobs like waitressing, cleaning, and retail work to understand how people survive on meager incomes. During her stint as an undercover worker, Ehrenreich witnessed the struggles and hardships faced by the working class, shedding light on issues often overlooked by middle and upper-class individuals.

Similarly, sociologists John S. Lynd and Helen Merrell Lynd (1959) altered their research focus during a study of small towns in the United States. Originally intending to examine the role of religion in these communities, they shifted their attention to the impacts of industrialization and urbanization after observing societal changes. Despite the change in focus, the Lynds maintained their research methods, highlighting the flexibility and adaptability inherent in sociological inquiry. Through these diverse approaches, researchers like Rothman, Ehrenreich, and the Lynds uncover valuable insights into various aspects of society, enriching our understanding of social dynamics and inequalities.

Ethnography

Ethnography involves immersing the researcher in the natural environment of a particular social community to observe and experience their daily life and culture firsthand. At the core of ethnographic research lies an examination of how individuals perceive their own social status and identity within their community.

For instance, an ethnographic study might focus on various social groups, such as families in a small town in the U.S., an Inuit community, a village in Thailand, a family unit within a Buddhist monastery, or a community formed within a private boarding school. Each of these settings has its own boundaries, within which people live, work, study, or relax. Individuals within these communities have specific reasons for being there, influencing their behaviors and adherence to cultural norms. An ethnographer would dedicate a significant amount of time to thoroughly explore and understand every aspect of the chosen community, aiming to capture its essence comprehensively.

Institutional ethnography builds upon the foundational principles of ethnographic research, focusing deliberately on the everyday social interactions that shape our lives. Originating from the work of Canadian sociologist Dorothy E. Smith (2005), institutional ethnography is often regarded as a feminist-influenced approach to social analysis, particularly highlighting women’s experiences within male-dominated societies and power structures. Smith’s contributions are viewed as challenging sociology’s historical neglect of women, both in academia and in the study of their lived experiences.

Traditionally, social science research tended to overlook women’s experiences, often reducing them to objects of study seen through a male-centric lens. Contemporary feminists argue that portraying women, along with other marginalized groups, as subordinate reinforces the dominance of those in power. Smith’s major works examine what she terms “the conceptual practices of power,” making significant contributions to feminist theory and ethnography. These works remain influential in shaping our understanding of gender dynamics and power structures within society.

Case study

Occasionally, researchers aim to investigate a specific individual or event. A case study involves a thorough examination of a single event, situation, family, or individual. To conduct a case study, researchers analyze existing sources such as documents and archival records, conduct interviews, observe directly, and sometimes participate in the situation.

Researchers might employ this method to explore a variety of scenarios, such as a foster child’s experience, a family coping with a cancer survivor, or the journey of a rape victim. However, a notable critique of case studies is their limited ability to draw generalized conclusions. While they offer rich insights into a particular topic, they lack the breadth of evidence needed to establish universal patterns. Consequently, most sociologists refrain from relying solely on case studies as their primary research method.

Nevertheless, case studies prove invaluable when dealing with uniquely singular cases. In such instances, a single case study can provide invaluable insights. For instance, feral children—individuals raised without human contact—present an extraordinary phenomenon. With only around one hundred documented cases globally, feral children offer researchers a rare opportunity to understand child development beyond conventional norms. Given their scarcity, case studies become the most appropriate method for studying these subjects.

Take, for example, the case of Oxana Malaya, a Ukrainian girl neglected by her parents and raised among dogs in a shed. Discovered at age eight, Oxana exhibited behaviors akin to those dogs. Despite efforts to reintegrate her into society, Oxana struggled to fully adapt and now resides in a mental institution. Cases like Oxana’s offer sociologists unique data that may not be attainable through other means.

Experiments

Chances are, you’ve tested some of your own social theories in daily life. For instance, you might have thought, “If I study at night and review in the morning, I’ll boost my retention skills,” or “If I cut out soda, I’ll feel healthier.” These ideas follow a cause-and-effect logic: if this happens, then that happens. When you put your theories to the test, your results either support or refute your initial hypothesis. Similarly, researchers investigate social theories by conducting experiments to examine relationships and validate hypotheses.

Experiments in sociology come in two main flavors: lab-based experiments and natural or field experiments. In a lab environment, researchers can control various factors to gather data efficiently within a set timeframe. On the other hand, in natural or field experiments, researchers cannot control the data-gathering timeframe, but the information obtained is often considered more accurate because it’s collected without researcher interference.

Both types of sociological experiments serve the purpose of testing if-then statements: if a particular event occurs (the cause), then a specific outcome will follow (the effect). In lab-based experiments, sociologists craft artificial scenarios to manipulate variables. Typically, sociologists select a group of individuals with similar characteristics, such as age, class, race, or education level, and divide them into two groups: the experimental group and the control group. The experimental group is exposed to the independent variable(s), while the control group is not. For example, to evaluate the benefits of tutoring, researchers might provide tutoring to the experimental group but not to the control group. Both groups are then assessed for differences in performance to determine if tutoring had a significant impact on the experimental group.

However, researchers must be cautious about influencing subjects’ behavior through their awareness of being observed—a phenomenon known as the Hawthorne effect. Subjects may alter their behavior simply because they know they are part of a study. While unavoidable in some cases, sociologists strive to minimize this effect by transparently communicating the purpose of the study to participants. Despite efforts to maintain natural behavior, some degree of artificiality may still be present in research settings (Sonnenfeld 1985).

Secondary data analysis

Although sociologists frequently conduct original research studies, they also enrich the field through secondary data analysis. Secondary data refers to information not directly gathered by the researcher but sourced from previously completed research or data compiled by organizations or agencies. Sociologists may delve into works produced by historians, economists, educators, or early sociologists, spanning a range of mediums such as periodicals, newspapers, organizational records, or internet databases like census, FBI, or CIA data.

Leveraging existing information not only saves resources but also offers the opportunity to uncover fresh insights by interpreting findings in novel ways. For instance, to investigate societal perceptions of women in the 1960s, a researcher might analyze movies, TV shows, and sitcoms from that era. Similarly, the emergence of television in the late 1950s and early 1960s could be explored through reinterpreting secondary data. Looking ahead, future researchers will likely examine the impact of technologies like mobile phones, the internet, or social media using similar methods.

Furthermore, social scientists benefit from analyzing studies conducted by various entities, including governmental departments and international organizations like the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics or the World Health Organization (WHO). For example, data on foreclosure rates can illuminate the effects of economic downturns, while comparing racial demographic profiles with education funding data can shed light on disparities in resource allocation.

A notable advantage of secondary data analysis is its nonreactive nature, meaning it does not involve direct interaction with subjects and therefore does not influence their behavior. Unlike studies requiring direct engagement with individuals, using pre-existing data avoids the complexities and risks associated with entering populations.

Nevertheless, employing available data presents challenges. Accessing public records may require considerable effort, and verifying the accuracy of existing data can be difficult. For instance, while it’s straightforward to tally the number of drunk drivers apprehended by police, determining the total number remains elusive. Similarly, tracking the outcomes of high school dropouts over time poses logistical hurdles.

The variety of research methods available reflects the diverse nature of research questions, each method offering its own set of advantages and limitations. By considering these factors, researchers can select the most suitable approach for their specific inquiry, as outlined in Table 2, aiding in the differentiation between research methods.